Factors related to earthquake preparedness of households based on social-cognitive theory constructs: A systematic review

Background Earthquakes cause many casualties worldwide. Taking preventive measures and improving community preparedness is critical to reducing earthquake damage. The social cognitive theory explains how individual and environmental factors cause behavior. This review was conducted to identify the social cognitive theory structures, in research on the preparedness of households against earthquakes. Materials and methods This systematic review was performed based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A search was conducted from January 1, 2000, to October 30, 2021 in Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar. Studies were selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. The initial search yielded 9,225 articles, and finally, 18 articles were selected. Articles were assessed using the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklist. Results Eighteen articles about disaster preparedness behaviors based on the socio-cognitive constructs were identified and reviewed. The essential constructs used in the reviewed studies included self-efficacy, collective efficacy, knowledge, outcome expectations, social support, and normative beliefs. Conclusion By identifying the dominant structures that have been used in studies related to the preparedness of households against earthquakes, researchers can implement appropriate and more cost-effective interventions by focusing on improving suitable structures.


Introduction
The 21st century has witnessed an upward trend in natural hazards, increased casualties, and high economic loss (1,2). Among natural disasters, earthquakes are important due to their unique characteristics, such as unpredictability, high destructive power, and high human casualties (3). Globally, 142.9 million

Search strategy
The search strategy was developed based on keywords related to the research topic. A set of keywords was selected based on previous studies and Medical Subject Headings (MeSH). We used four groups of keywords: (a) social-cognitive theory, social cognitive model, and cognitive-social theory constructs, (b) risk, disaster, emergency, hazard, catastrophe, crisis, and earthquakes, (c) preparedness, readiness, mitigation, behavior, protective action, and preventive behaviors (d) household, family, citizen, population, resident, inhabitant, and public. These keywords were combined using the operators of the mentioned databases. The search strategy and key terms were as follows: ("socialcognitive theory" OR "social cognitive model" OR self-efficacy OR "collective efficacy" OR "outcome expectations" OR "observational learning" OR "normative beliefs" OR "social support" OR "barriers and opportunities" OR "behavioral skills" OR "reinforcement and punishment") AND (risk * OR disaster * OR emergenc * OR hazard * OR catastroph * OR crisis OR earthquake * ) AND (prepar * OR readiness OR mitigation OR behavior * "protective action" OR "preventive behavior") AND (household * OR family OR citizen * OR population OR resident * OR inhabitant * OR public). These searches were performed in abstracts, keywords, and titles. Furthermore, the reference list of published studies was also searched for relevant articles. Only English articles were included.

Data collection
The articles from the initial search were imported into EndNote software. After removing duplicate and unrelated titles, the remaining titles, abstracts, and the full text of the articles were screened by the first author (ER) and the second author (HS). Discussions about article selection were resolved through discussion, and the relevant articles were selected. The selection process for this review is shown in Figure 1.
The initial search yielded 9,225 articles, of which 4,730 duplicate titles and 2,508 unrelated titles were deleted. The abstracts of the remaining 1,987 titles were reviewed, and 83 related articles were selected. In the next step, 65 articles were excluded. The reasons for exclusion were that these articles used other health behavior change theories, did not examine household preparedness for earthquakes and did it for other organizations and groups, or examined household preparedness for other natural hazards. Eventually, 17 articles remained. Later one study was added through a search of the reference lists of the retrieved articles ( Figure 1). The data of the selected articles were extracted based on a pre-designed form by the first and second authors.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Inclusion criteria were original quantitative articles about socialcognitive theory constructs related to earthquake preparedness of households. Articles in which the title was about disaster preparedness, but inside the article, the focus was on earthquakes were selected. However, articles that focused on other natural hazards, such as floods, climate change, etc., were excluded. Review studies, abstracts of papers presented at conferences, letters to the editor, editorials, and dissertations were not included.

Quality assessment
The quality of the included literature was assessed independently by two reviewers (ER and MN-M). For qualification assessment of the articles, the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklist was applied (26). The checklist consisted of 22 questions. A "yes" answer would receive 1 point, and a "no, or unspecified" would receive 0 points.

Results
Eighteen articles on disaster preparedness behaviors based on socio-cognitive theory constructs were identified and reviewed. The essential constructs used in the reviewed studies included selfefficacy, collective efficacy, knowledge, outcome expectations, social support, and normative beliefs.
The constructs of the social-cognitive theory, including self-efficacy, collective efficacy, knowledge, outcome expectations, social support, and normative beliefs in studies, had been mentioned in respectively 9, 5, 5, 4, 3, and 1 articles. None of the articles used all of the constructs together.
In two articles, the study group was vulnerable households (elderly and disabled). In one article, the study examined the staff 's household preparedness level. In 15 articles, an adult or head of household participated in the study. The characteristics of each of the selected studies are presented in Table 1.
The quality of the articles varied from 15 to 22 (Table 2).

Discussion
The essential constructs used in the reviewed studies included self-efficacy, outcome expectations, social support, collective efficacy, normative beliefs, and knowledge.

Self-e cacy
In the reviewed articles, self-efficacy was one of the most important structures used in research on earthquake preparedness. Bandura considers self-efficacy to be a person's judgment of his or her ability to perform a particular action (27). Studies showed that the higher a person's self-efficacy, the more intention there is for preventive measures and disaster preparedness (23, 35, 38, 39, . /fpubh. . Self-efficacy, response efficacy, community advantage, disaster preparedness 4,700 people with disabilities, residents aged 18 and above Self-efficacy significantly mediated the relation between self-rated health and disaster preparedness. Living in a community with more significant advantages, particularly with more advantaged social and housing attributes, reduced the negative association between poor self-rated health and preparedness Societal and environmental factors (trust, empowerment, community participation, collective efficacy, outcome expectancies), earthquake preparedness behaviors (real behavior, perceived readiness, and the intention to prepare)

residents 18 years old and above
Social trust was the most critical predictor of preparedness behavior, intention to be prepared and perceived preparedness. The averages for social trust and the other dimensions of preparedness, namely, the actual behavior and perceived preparedness, were generally less than the expected average Adhikari et al. (41), Nepal Community participation, collective efficacy, trust, empowerment, and behavioral intentions 306 households Individual risk beliefs included risk appraisal (perceived probability and severity) and coping appraisal, including self-efficacy, response efficiency, and response cost. Also, community factors (community participation, collective efficacy) and institutional factors (trust, empowerment) were predicted by the intention to prepare behavior Kelly   Critical awareness, risk perception, and earthquake anxiety were predictors of outcome expectations. Outcome expectations predicted self-efficacy, intention to prepare, and action coping. Critical awareness, outcome expectations, and action coping were predictors of intention to prepare. Self-efficacy and critical awareness were predictors of intention to seek information.
Intentions to prepare were a strong predictor of earthquake preparedness behavior 41-43, 45, 46, 49). People are more likely to take precautionary measures and disaster preparedness behaviors when they believe they can do it. In studies based on other theories and behavior change models, people with higher self-efficacy performed more preventive actions and disaster preparedness behaviors (22, 31, 41, 50-52). According to a study by Newnham in Hong Kong (53), people with higher self-efficacy had fewer evacuation barriers during disasters. The results of Cong et al. from the United States (54) showed that lack of self-efficacy was one of the barriers to disaster preparedness behavior. In Janis et al.'s study in the Philippines (55), people with higher self-efficacy were more prepared for typhoons. People are more likely to engage in disaster-prevention behaviors if they are confident in their ability to engage in disasterprevention behaviors. In order to increase disaster preparedness, intentions, and behaviors, it is necessary to increase people's belief in their abilities.

Outcome expectations
Another construct of the social-cognitive theory used in the reviewed studies was outcome expectations. Outcome expectations anticipate possible outcomes that will result from preparedness measures (33). According to the studies, the higher the positive outcome expectations in people, the more the intention and behavior of disaster preparedness, and the higher the negative outcome expectations, the less the intention and behavior of preparedness (24,(47)(48)(49)56). Also, the results of the reviewed studies showed that collective efficiency (47) and self-efficacy (49) were higher in societies where positive outcome expectations were reported in more people. If people are confident that their actions will have positive consequences, they will take preventive measures and improve disaster preparedness. However, if they find their efforts futile and feel helpless in the face of disasters, they will not take action to prepare themselves for disasters. Grade  21  22  19  18  19  15  19  16  19  17  19  20  18  21  17  16  16 16 * = yes; -= No.

Social support
Social support is another construct of the social-cognitive theory used in studies of disaster preparedness behaviors. According to the results of studies, people with higher levels of formal and informal social support and more connections with the community and organizations were more prepared for disaster-related emergencies (37,38,44,45). According to a study by Babcicky and Seebauer (57), people who received more social support in flood-prone areas in Austria had more self-efficacy. In a study conducted by Mideksa et al. (58) in the Philippines, students receiving higher social support from family, peers, and school were better prepared for disasters. In Permana's study in Indonesia (59), higher social support increased community self-efficacy in coping with the tsunamis.
But, contrary to the findings of the mentioned studies, the study conducted by Han et al. (36) in China showed that individuals who reported more social support had lower preparedness. In a study by Yu et al. (60) in earthquake-prone villages in China, the more informal social support was received, the less preparedness was reported.
According to Bandura (61), individuals, as social beings, tend to rely on other members of society to resolve issues and improve their wellbeing. Households receiving more support from relatives and authorities may feel more empowered to take preventative measures to reduce the risk of disasters. On the other hand, a strong sense of belonging to a community and receiving more social support may reduce the feeling of concern about natural hazards and mitigation.

Collective e cacy
Another construct used in these studies was collective efficacy. According to the social-cognitive theory, collective efficacy is the assurance of individuals that their joint efforts will bring social change (62). Compared to self-efficacy, collective efficacy beliefs are related to .
/fpubh. . group tasks, group members' shared efforts and thoughts, and group progress (33). According to the results of the studies, in societies where higher collective efficacy and greater community participation were reported, the intentions and behaviors of disaster preparedness were higher (25,31,40,41,47). Studies have shown that people participating in more social events were more prepared for disasters (24,40). In Florida, a study by Mash et al. (63) showed that the higher the collective efficacy, the more people were prepared after the hurricane. According to the study conducted by Fay-Ramirez et al. (64), respondents who were most affected by storms and floods, reported lower levels of collective efficiency before the disaster. In the study of Martins et al. (65), in New York City households that were politically active or were integrated into community networks were more likely to engage in all types of preparedness efforts. The more extensive the social network before a disaster and the greater the social connections in the community, the less the adverse effects of a disaster. In communities where disaster risk reduction behaviors are compatible with the local community's culture, disasters cause minor damage, so planners must empower the community and involve people in social activities.
According to the results of the reviewed studies, the higher the social trust and trust in the government and authorities, the more disaster preparedness behavior was reported (25,36,37,(39)(40)(41)47). While, in the study of Armaş et al. (42), those who felt less prepared were more likely to trust various institutions (government, NGOs, fire departments, media, etc.). Excessive trust in responsible authorities and organizations may make people feel less responsible, and a false sense of security may prevent them from taking precautionary measures and preparedness behaviors. On the other hand, high trust will likely improve communication between local authorities and residents and increase disaster preparedness.

Normative beliefs
One of the constructs of the social-cognitive theory is normative beliefs. According to the results of the reviewed studies, in McIver and Patton's (48) study, people with positive subjective norms had more intentions for disaster preparedness measures. The studies based on other theories also showed that people with higher subjective norms had more prepared intentions and behavior against disasters (21, 30,31,66). According to Nurjana's study in Indonesia (67), the higher the subjective norms, the greater the attitude toward preparedness and preparedness behaviors against disasters increased as well. In Ong et al.'s study in the Philippines (68), subjective norm was one of the key factors that increased people's intention to prepare for an earthquake. These studies show that if there is more interpersonal and social communication and people are influenced by relatives and other important people in the community, the intention and behavior of preparedness will increase. Recognition of these beliefs may assist policymakers and executives in developing a better understanding of the origins of preparedness behaviors.

Knowledge
According to the results of the studies, people with a higher level of knowledge had stronger beliefs, intentions, and preparedness behavior; and lack of awareness and knowledge was mentioned as one of the most important reasons for poor preparedness for emergencies (23,43,45,46 Based on the results of reviewed studies, people who participated in the training programs or other family members had greater selfefficacy, knowledge, and preparedness (23,24,42). Amini et al.,in Iran (12) showed that educational interventions improve the preparedness behavior of households against earthquakes.
Therefore, to improve the preparedness behavior of households against earthquakes, it is necessary to design and implement appropriate training programs based on structures that are strong predictors of intention and behavior.

Preparedness
Studies have shown that despite global efforts to reduce disaster risk, global preparedness intentions and behaviors are unsatisfactory despite the experience of natural hazards in these populations (35,36,40,45,46). However, in most studies that reported the level of preparedness of the population under study, most households were not sufficiently prepared for disasters or did not intend to take measures related to preparedness (23-25, 35, 36, 40, 42, 44, 46, 71 Martins et al. (65), indicate that the levels of household preparedness in New York City at the time of the storm were modest. The reason for the difference in the level of preparedness of households against disasters in different regions may be due to the difference in the socio-economic level of households, the experience of a destructive hazards, the perception of risk, as well as the efforts and planning of the government to improve the level of people's preparedness and reduce the risk of disasters.
In a post-Taiwan earthquake study, people had high intentions to engage in earthquake preparedness behavior, but still lacked preparedness measures (51). It is likely that after experiencing a dangerous hazard, residents' awareness and risk perception will increase, and people will be more willing to prepare for potential future hazards. Failure to prepare for disaster may be due to a lack of knowledge and skills in that population despite high intentions.

Demographic factors
Based on the results of the studies, in several studies, older people (24,35,43,45,46) and in some studies, younger .
people (39,42) had more reasonable beliefs, intentions, and disaster preparedness behaviors. Older people may report more preparedness and intentions due to more experience, better risk perception, religious beliefs, and responsibility toward younger people. However, limited mobility and disability at older ages can negatively affect appropriate behavior when hazards occur, or the feeling of being close to the end of life can reduce their motivation for disaster preparedness. Younger people are more likely to have better beliefs, intentions, and preparedness behaviors than older people, because of their higher levels of education and better economic, social, and physical status.
In most studies, men reported better belief, intent, and behavior in the face of disasters (24,35,36,39,42,45), and in some articles, women reported better intent and preparedness (43,46). Differences in the findings of different studies can be due to cultural, social, and economic differences in different regions. Another reason may be that the head of the household has more responsibility than other family members.
According to the results of the reviewed studies, people with physical disabilities and their families (38), and ethnic, racial, and political minority groups (36,43) had lower beliefs, intentions, knowledge, and disaster preparedness behaviors.

Limitations
This article only reviewed studies published in English, and may therefore be subject to language bias.

Conclusion
The constructs of self-efficacy, collective efficacy, knowledge, outcome expectations, social support, and normative beliefs were used more frequently in studies related to earthquake preparedness behaviors of households. Designing and implementing interventions focusing on these structures can improve preventive behaviors and the preparedness of households against earthquakes.

Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.